英语知识小品

old-fisher

The Tundra of the Arctic Regions


These are the signs of the coming arctic winter：The color of the tundra changes as the water grasses turn brilliant red．The migratory birds gather in flocks along the coast and gradually drift southward．Most of the birds that have spent the brief summer on the tundra now disappear，leaving only the golden eagle，the gyrfalcon，the ptarmigan，and the snowy owl to brave the sunless northern winter． As the lakes and ponds freeze over，a thin mantle of snow covers the sedge．Occasionally a young and inquisitive arctic fox may be seen loping across the tundra．The weasel and the lemming begin to change color；as the winter deepens，their coats will turn snow-white． During the first week in August the arctic sun dips below the horizon for the first time since May——it has not set all summer long．The gold and purple sunsets color the subfreezing waters of the Arctic Ocean． By the end of September or early October the tundra is dark and seems deserted；winter has taken hold of the arctic for another nine long months．

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The American Museum of Natural History

When an art museum wants a new exhibit，it buys things in finished form and hangs them on its walls．When a natural history museum wants an exhibit，it often must build it realisti-cally-from a mass of material and evidence brought together by careful research． An animal，for example，must first be skinned．Photographs and measurements are used to determine the animal's structure in a natural position——fighting，resting，or feeding．Then muscle forms are built and a plaster shell is made．Finally the skin is pulled over the shell like a wet glove．This completes the animal subject． Displaying such things as stone heads，giant trees，and meteorites is basically mechanical．Most other natural history exhibits present more difficult problems．For instance，how can a creature be exhibited when it is too small to be seen clearly？In these cases，larger——than——life models are built．The American Museum of Natural History has models of fleas，houseflies，and a myriad other insects enlarged up to seventy-four times．The models show the stages of the insects' development and the workings of their bodies．

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The Grand Banks，the Richest Fishing Ground in the World

John and Sebastian Cabot sailed back across the North Atlantic with bad news for their patron，King Henry Ⅶ of England．Instead of a short sea route to Japan and India，they had found only rocky，icy coasts． It was as a mere afterthought that they mentioned that they had visited a place near what they called New Found Isle．The codfish were so plentiful there that when the sailors had lowered baskets into the water and hoisted them up，they were full of squirming，silvery fish． Although the merchants and the nobles at court did not care about this discovery，the fishermen of Europe became very interested．Before long，many fishermen were sailing across the Atlantic to Newfoundland in their little fishing boats and bringing back great numbers of dried fish for the kitchens of Europe． In time，the right to fish the Grand Banks came to be considerde far more valuable than all the treasure of the fabled East．The Grand Banks were，and still are，the richest fishing ground in the world．

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A Dream Laboratory at the Unlversity of Chicago

A unique laboratory at the University of Chicago is busy only at night．It is a dream laboratory where researchers are at work studying dreamers．Their findings have revealed that everyone dreams from three to seven times a night，although in ordinary life a person may remember none or only one of his dreams． While the subjects——usually students——sleep，special machines record their brain waves and eye movements as well as the body movements that signal the end of a dream．Surprisingly，all subjects sleep soundly． Observers report that a person usually fidgets before a dream．Once the dream has started，his body relaxes and his eyes become more active，as if the curtain had gone up on a show ．As soon as the machine indicates that the dream is over，a buzzer wakens the sleeper．He sits up，records his dream，and goes back to sleep——perhaps to dream some more． Researchers have found that if the dreamer is wakened immediately after his dream，he can usually recall the entire dream．If he is allowed to sleep even five more minutes，his memory of the dream will have faded．

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The Best Season for Thinking

If you are like most people，your intelligence varies from season to season．You are probably a lot sharper in the spring than you are at any other time of year．A noted scientist，Ellsworth Huntington（1876-1947），concluded from other men's work and his own among peoples in different climates that climate and temperature have a definite effect on our mental abilities． He found that cool weatner is much more favorable for creative thinking than is summer heat．This does not mean that all people are less intelligent in the summer than they are during the rest of the year．It does mean，however，that the mental abilities of large numbers of people tend to be lowest in the summer． Spring appears to be the best period of the year for thinking．One reason may be that in the spring man's mental abilities are affected by the same factors that bring about great changes in all nature． Fall is the next-best season，then winter．As for summer，it seems to be a good time to take a long vacation from thinking！

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The United States in about 23 Million Years

The ordinary raindrop is a mighty earth mover with sufficient strength to cut rock．When rainwater collects on the surface of the ground，some of it evaporates and some of it sinks into the earth．The remainder begins to flow downhill，commencing its lengthy journey from brook to stream to lake，or to a river that will carry it to the sea． As water flows along the ground，it picks up sand，pebbles，even boulders．It uses them to gnaw at the sides and bottom of its channel，gradually loosening more earth． By this process enormous amounts of mud and rock are moved from the land to the sea．Each year the Mississippi Rivercarries 730 million of solid matter into the Gulf of Mexico． This constant hauling of land into the sea is lowering the United States' average height above sea level at a rate of about one foot every 9，000 years．If erosion continues at the same rate，the United States will be worn completely down to sea level in about 23 million years．

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The Patient and the Ship Owner

This incident occurred one morning outside Albert Sch-weitzer's hospital in the African jungle．A patient had gone fishing in another man's boat．The owner of the boat thought he should be given all the fish that were caught．Dr．Sch-weitzer said to the boat owner： “You are right because the other man ought to have asked permission to use your boat．But you are wrong because you are careless and lazy．You merely twisted the chain of your canoe round a palm tree instead of fastening it with a padlock．Of laziness you are guilty because you were asleep in your hut on this moonlit night instead of making use of the good opportunity for fishing．” He turned to the patient：“But you were in the wrong when you took the boat without asking the owner's permission．You were in the right because you were not so lazy as he was and you did not want to let the moonlit night go by without making some use of it．” Dr．Schweitzer divided the catch among the fisherman，the boat owner，and the hospital．

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The Shooting of a British Pig that Almost Started a War

“Charlie Griffin's British pig was in my potatoes again！”bellowed Lyman Cutler one day in 1859．The next time the pig snuffled into Cutler's potato patch，he shot it．The pig's owner swore to have Cutler jailed，and this almost started a war． At that time San Juan Island，where both men lived，was claimed by both the United States and Britain．When word reached the United States that the British were going to try an American for shooting a pig，U．S．troops were dispatched to Puget Sound．The British，in turn，sent warships．The Americans then sent more troops． U．S．General Winfield Scott talked the matter over with the British governor；national honor was now involved．The general and the governor agreed to occupy the island together，and the troops returned home without any arrest being made． The dispute was finally settled in 1872，when San Juan Island was awarded to the United States．

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Growing Plants Know Right from Left

Plants seem to know which way is up and which way is down；furthermore，they seem to know right from left．If a cutting from a Lombardy poplaris kept alive，new shoots will grow from the end that grew uppermost in the tree． There is no visible difference between the top and the bottom of the living stick，even under a microscope．Even so，the stick will not send out shoots from the end it views as bottom even if this end happens to be on top！ Scientists，studying this subject further split their cuttings lengthwise．To their surprise，they made another interesting discovery．A good many more buds grew on the right-hand side of the split surface than on the left．They split the sticks again and found that the buds again grew on the right side． The results of the entire study showed a 60-40 preference for the right side，proving that growing plants are basically “right-handed”．

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America's Dead Sea

Picture a still，shallow lake at the bottom of a huge basin．Long after experts insist it should have dried up，the Great Salt Lake of Utah——America's so-called Dead Sea——still exists． The supposedly dead lake has no fish，but millions of tiny shrimp and several forms of algae——primitive plant life-thrive there，in waters saltier than the ocean．Gulls roost on is-lands in the lake and shore birds nest in the marshes around it． Ancient beaches high on the sides of the surrounding mountains show that the lake once covered more than twenty times its present area．Other evidence shows that the lake has completely dried up several times in its history． The lake's level has not dropped much in the last hundred years，despite increased use of water from its sources for irrigation．Current plans for diverting the large Green River into the basin around the lake may even increase the lake's present size．

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The Air-cushioned Vehicle that Travels Clear Out of Sea and Land

The air-cushioned vehicle is not an airplane，since it does not have wings．It is neither a ship nor an automobile，since it travels clear of sea and land．It has a conventional gasoline engine，but no wheels．How does it travel？What keeps it in the air？ Under the air car is an air chamber with a large propeller parallel to the ground．The gasoline engine supplies power that causes the propeller to whirl．This fills the chamber with air．Some of the air is forced toward the ground through tiny holes around the edges of the car． These air jets create a wall that keeps the air from escaping from the chamber．As more and more air crowds into the chamber，the molecules of air become compressed．Their pressure becomes so strong that it lifts the car off the ground． Once the car is floating，the driver releases some of the compressed air．This makes the car speed forward．

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A Baboon that Has Learned to Count

Cowboy the batoon has learned to count——at least when he is hungry．Dr．Jack Findley of the University of Mary land has taught him to recognize five colors of lights；each light stands for a certain number of beeps from a sound box． When Cowboy turns on a light by pushing a button，the box begins making beep tones——the number of beeps．Cow-boy must count is determined by the color of the light．When the correct number has sounded，Cowboy pushes a second button．This stops the sound and releases a food pellet．If he pushes the button too soon or too late，Cowboy doesn't get any food． Cowboy is required to keep track of only five signals now，but he may have to think harder soon．Dr．Findley plans to shine two lights at once，and to require the baboon to push the button when the correct combined number has sounded． If Cowboy is able to do this，he will have learned how to add．

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Cookware during the Reign of Edward Ⅲof England

Pots and pans were once considered to be precious possessions．In the fourteenth century，during the reign of Edward Ⅲof England，the pieces of cookware——iron pots，griddles，spits，and frying pans—were numbered among the king's jewels．They were difficult to come by and，being rare，were extremely valuable；when the monarch went on a journey or made a visit，the pots and pans traveled along in a separate coach． By the time Henry Ⅴ，Edward's grandson，ascended the throne in the following century，the royal frying pans were made of silver，and so were the roasting spits． The kettles at Westminster during the early sixteenth century，when Henry Ⅷheld the throne，were “coppergilt”and quite lavishly decorated with chasing．The handles of the cooking ladles were chased with the royal arms，and one of the two-pronged toasting forks is known to have been tipped with an ornate metal ball．

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A Cub Reporter，the Important Step towards a Career in Newspaper Reporting

The student who wants a newspaper career has much hard work ahead of him before he can become even a cub，or beginning，reporter．He may begin by working on his high school newspaper or yearbook． Then the aspiring reporter may break into newspaper work as a copyboy，running errands and helping staff reporters．He may even be given a chance to write small stories．Sometimes students who are interested in news reporting can get jobs as campus reporters for local newspapers． Jobs such as these serve to acquaint the beginner with the atmosphere of news gathering．They give him a chance to sharpen his eye for details and teach him to be sure that his facts are accurate，that he reports them correctly，and that he writes his articles clearly．This work may lead to a job as a cub reporter on a newspaper，the important first step toward a career in news reporting．

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On the Beaches of Block Island

Doubloons worth a king's ransom may lie buried on Block Island，nine miles off the Rhode Island coast．Many seventeenth century pirates visited there to plunder and to get supplies． Only a hundred years ago，one story says，a ship anchored off shore one night and sailed out at dawn．Soon after，an island farmer found pieces of eight around a hole in his cornfield．Islanders are sure there is still treasure there．One man even kept“treasure rights”when he sold his property． “Terrific place to bury treasure，”another islander said．He pointed at the vast expanse of beach and cliffs．“A body could come sneakin' in here at night，bury his loot，and cat-foot it out before anyone knew what was up．” Probably not only pirates buried loot on the beaches of Block Island．Some early islanders were reputedly ship-wreckers．No one knows how much booty they removed from ships lured by their lanterns to smash on the jagged rocks．

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When People Began to Eat With the Fork

“Fingers were made before forks．”When a person gives up good manners，puts aside knife and fork，and dives into his food，someone is likely to repeat that saying． The fork was an ancient agricultural tool，but for centuries no one thought of eating with it．Not until the eleventh century，when a young lady from Constantinople brought her fork to Italy，did the custom reach Europe． By the fifteenth century the use of the fork was wide-spread in Italy．The English explanation was that Italians were averse to eating food touched with fingers，“seeing all men's fingers are not alike clean．”English travelers kept their friends in stitches while describing this ridiculous Italian custom． Anyone who used a fork to eat with was laughed at in England for the next hundred years．Men who used forks were thought to be sissies，and women who used them were called show-off sand overnice，Not until the late 1600's did using a fork become a common custom．

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Columbus that Made Four Voyages to the West

Columbus made four voyages to the west between 1492and 1504 in his vain search for a sea route to Asia．The mystery of why he failed to find it haunted him and filled with sadness． Wherever he went——to Cuba，Puerto Rico，Jamaica，South America，Panama，down the coast of Central America——it was always the same story．Instead of golden palaces，there were grass huts and palmleaf tents．Instead of silk robed merchant princes，he found “Indians”who did not have so much as a shirt on their backs． At times Columbus became reconciled to the truth that this new land was not China，not Japan，not the spice Islands．He seemed to accept it as a part of the earth that the geographers of Europe had never heard of before．It was another world——and he called it exactly that——but Columbus also insisted until he died that the land he had reached was an unknown part of Asia．

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From Land Animal to King of the Sea

Whales——or their ancestors——were once land animals．Scientists believe that they roamed the earth about 150million years ago． The landd welling ancestors of this modern king of the sea were hunters with legs and the jaws and teeth of killers．Their favorite hunting grounds were probably shallow waters near the mouths of rivers or off a level stretch of coast，for fish，both finny and shell，were then more plentiful and easier to catch than animals．Because of this，these land mammals came to spend more and more time in the water． Ages passed，and these creatures swam more easily than they walked；millions of years later they were able to do without legs altogether．They were now recognizable as whales．Their forelegs had turned into the flippers that today's whales use for steering；their hind legs had shrunk so that mere traces of them can be found under the skin when a whale is dissected．

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Ballet，a Combination of Four Arts

Although the first thing that comes to mind when we hear the word ballet is a graceful ballerinagliding across the stage，the ballet is not just dancing．The final production is a combination of four arts：dancing，music，drama and painting．It is also a combination of the efforts of many people． The ballerina and her partner dance the main roles．It may be hard to realize that behind their seemingly effortless movements are long years of practice．She had to dance in minor roles for many years．The premier danseur had to learn the art of partnering，of showing off the ballerina so that she appears to be perfect． Some of the people who create a ballet never appear on stage．They are responsible for the music to which the dancers move，the theme of the ballet's story，the sets，and the costumes．It is the fusion of these many talents that creates the one，overall effect that is a ballet．

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Time Zonesand the International Date Line

Strange things happen to time when you travel，because the earth is divided into twenty-four time zones，one hour apart．You can have days with more or fewer than twenty-four hours，and weeks with more or fewer than seven days． If you make a five-day trip across the Atlantic Ocean，Your ship enters a different time zone every day．As you enter each zone，the time changes one hour．Traveling west，you set your clock back；traveling east，you set it ahead．Each day of your trip has either twenty-five or twenty-three hours． If you travel by ship across the Pacific，you cross the international date line．By agreement，this is the point where a new day begins．When you cross the line，you change your calendar one full day，backward or forward．Traveling east，today becomes yesterday；traveling west，it is tomorrow！

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The Dugout in the Side of a Hill

When the pioneers began their conquest of the western prairie，they found materials for building shelters close at hand．Where timber was availabls，the settlers sometimes built log houses．Most prairie homes，however，were either sodhouses or dugouts．These houses could be built quickly and easily． The dugout was a room dug in the side of a hill．A few railsor posts were used to make a door frame and，possibly，a window．The front wall was made of pieces of sod or logs．Sloping back onto the hill was a roof made of poles or logs covered with a layer of brush，a layer of prairie grass，and a layer of dirt． As soon as a covered wagon halted at a new homestead，the head of the family took out his spade．The family lived in the wagon for the few days that it took him to build a dugout．

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Army Life in the American Civil War

For every man in the Civil War who died in battle，two or three men died of disease．Doctors of that time knew very little about causes of sickness or ways of preventing it．Thousands of men in poor health became soldiers．Hundreds of others had never had childhood diseases．Many of these soldiers could not withstand the epidemics of measles，mumps，and whooping coughthat went through the camps． Army life was hard．Soldiers got few fruits or vegetables．There was no milk unless they happened to find a cow．Neither their clothes nor their shelters protected the troops from rain，snow，and cold．Sickness and disease were spread by insects，rats，and impuredrinking water．Often the men drank straight from muddy streams． Gunshot wounds were serious，as in any war，but they did not cause as much death and suffering as disease did．

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The Last Part of This Century，an Age of Exploration

The last part of this century will be an age of exploration such as man has never known．There are eight planets，at least thirty moons，and thousands of asteroids to be explored．Their total area is about 250 times that of the earth．Space-ships will not be able to land on some of them．But that still leaves to be explored an area ten times as great as the continents of the earth． Exploring space may seem terrifying to some people．No doubt explorers of the past were terrified by the great empty oceans that lay before them．They conquered their fears，crossed the oceans，and built the New World． In the past when explorers set sail into the unknown，they had to say good-by to everything they knew at home．Space explorers will not face such great loneliness．Even when they travel far beyond the sun，they will be able to send messages back．

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Hancock's Signature

Because he wrote his name so that it could be read easily，John Hancock has a place in the dictionary． John Hancock was a wealthy man who helped the patriots in the American Revolution．He was president of the Continental Congress．He was also governor of Massa-chusettsand one of the first men to sign the Declaration of Independence．Yet he is remembered best for his large signature． The story is told that when Hancock sat down to sign the Declaration of Independence，he said that he would write his signature large enough for John Bull to read without his glasses．（John Bull stands for England，as Uncle Sam stands for the United States．）Hancock's signature on the Declaration is four and three-quarters inches long——an inch longer than his usual signature． Today John Hancock can be used to mean any person's signature．

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Strong and Gentle Shetlands

When is a horse a pony？
Horses are measured in hands：one hand equals 4 inches．The height of a horse is measured from the ground to the highest point of the withers（the part of a horse's back between its shoulder blades）．Any horse under 14 hands 2 inches（58inches）is a pony． By this definition，a baby horse is not a pony；baby horses are called foals．Horses that do not develop to roughly the same size as the rest of their breed are not ponies either．Underdeveloped horses are called runts． There are more than twenty breeds of ponies in the world．The bestknown are the Shetlands，the smallest of all breeds，which average a little less than 10 hands，about 39 inches． Shetlands were first used in England as work animals in coal mines，because they were strong．They are also gentle，and may be trained to be good pets．

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An Old Legend about Cheese

No one knows who made the first cheese，but an old leqend says that it was an Arabian merchant．He put his milk in a pouch made from a sheep's stomach and set off across the desert．The jouncing of his camel，the desert heat，and the chemicals in the pouch lining made the milk separate into curds and whey．The thick part，or curd，was the first cheese． Ancient records show that cheese has been eaten for more than four thousand years．From earliest times it has been considered a very nourishing food．Americans eat less cheese than people in some countries do，yet they still consume eight to ten pounds a year per person． Today cheese is made all over the world．Most cheese is made from cow's milk，because the suppply of this milk is greater throughout the world．Smaller quantities come from the milk of other animals—goats，sheep，camels，and even reindeer．

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Man's First Real Invention

Man's first real invention，and one of the most important inventions in history，was the wheel．All transportation and every machine in the world depend on it． The wheel is the simplest yet perhaps the most remarkable of all inventions，because there are no wheels in nature-no living thing was ever created with wheels．How，then，did man come to invent the wheel？ Perhaps some early hunters found that they could roll the carcass of a heavy animal through the forest on logs more easily than they could carry it．However，the logs themselves weighed a lot． It must have taken a great prehistoric thinker to imagine two thin slices of log connected at their centers by a strong stick．This would roll along just as the logs did，yet be much lighter and easier to handle．Thus the wheel and axle came into being，and with them the first carts．

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A Large Lake of Asphalt on the Is-land of Trinidad

At the village off La Brea，on the island of Trinidad，in the West Indies，is a large lake of asphalt called Pitch Lake． The asphalt is hard and is dug out with a big scoop shovel or a pick，leaving a hole in the surface of the lake．Within a week or two the hole is filled with new asphalt that pushes up from below．The supply of asphalt seems to be endless． An ancient legend explains how Pitch Lake came to be：Many centuries ago two Indian tribes fought a great battle．The victorious tribe built a village and held a victory celebration，They killed hundreds of beautiful hummingbirds，ate them，and used their feathers to decorate their clothing．The Great Spirit was so angered that the birds had been killed that he caused the entire village to sink into the earth．The crater where the village stood has been filled wish asphalt ever since．

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How Americans Showed Their Respect for Edison

Thomas Alva Edison was awarded more patents on inventions than any other American．When he died in 1931，Americans wondered how they could best show their respect for him． One suggestion was that the nation observe a minute or two of total blackout．All electric power would be shut off in homes，streets，and factories． Perhaps this suggested plan made Americans realize fully what Edison and his inventions meant to them．Electric power was too important to the country．Shutting if off for even a short time would have led to complete confusion．A blackout was out of the question． On the day of Edison's funeral，many people silently dimmed their lights．In this way they honored the man who had done more than anyone else to put the great force of electricity at his countrymen's fingertips．

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Copper，the First Metal that Man Learned to Make

Copper was the first metal that man learned to make．In some mountainous lands there were rocks streaked with green minerals．One day some rocks were accidentally heated by a roaring fire．When the fire burned low，little beads of copper were seen on the rock wall． After that，men heated the rock deliberately to see whether more copper would appear．They soon found a good way to make copper．They would build a trench on a hillside and fill it with charcoal and copper－bearing rock．They covered this furnace with flat stones． They started a wood fire to heat the charcoal and the hot charcoal released copper from the rock．A hot red pool of melted metal formed at the mouth of the trench．When it was cool，the solid metal could be lifted out and cut and pounded into shapes．

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Iceberg Season of Newfoundland and the Steamship Titanic

Each year about four hundred icebergs survive the long journey from Greenland and Baffin Bay and float into the warm waters off the coast of Newfoundland． In April 1912 the steamship Titanic struck one of these icebergs．It sank with a great loss of life．Shortly after，the Ice Patrol was founded to patrol the shipping lane near Newfound－land during the iceberg season． The patrol is carried out by one or two U．S．Coast Guard boats．They locate and chart every iceberg in the waters and the information is radioed to nearby ships．Fourteen nations pay the costs of the patrol service． Icebergs begin to threaten shipping in March．It is in May that the patrol boats are busiest．During that month an average of 130 icebergs must be located and charted．By June the danger is over．

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The first true piece of sports equipment that man invented was the ball．


In ancient Egypt，as everywhere，pitching stones was a favorite children's game．But a badly thrown rock could hurt a child．Looking for something less dangerous to throw，the Egyptians made what were probably the first balls． At first balls were made of grass or leaves held together by vines．Later they were made of pieces of animal skin sewed together and stuffed with feathers or hay． Even though the Egyptians were warlike，they found time for peaceful games．Before long they had developed a number of ballgames，each with its own set of rules．Perhaps they played ball more for instruction than for fun．Ball playing was thought of mainly as a way to teach young men the speed and skill they would need for war．

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Climbing Out of a Space ship onto the surface of the Moon

We have just climbed out of a spaceship onto the surface of the moon．Behind us is the ship，half in the sunlight and half in deep shadow．A few miles ahead is a wall of mountains towering against the black sky． And there，as though resting on the mountains，is a great ball of light，beautifully colored in blue and green and brown with a patch of dazzling white at the top．It is our own faraway world——the earth． We take a step and rise like prize jumpers－up，float，and down again．Hopping carefully，we explore the valleys，the sloping crater walls，the shadowy crater floors． Not a sound can be heard——there is no air to carry sound，no wind；there are no smells，no plants，no animals，There is nothing but rock and dust，blinding sunlight and cold black shadows．

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The First English Window

The first English window was just a slit in the wall．It was cut long，so that it would let in as much light as possible，and narrow，to keep out the bad weather．However，the slit let in more wind than light．This is why it was called“the wind's eye”．The word window itself comes from two Old Norse words for wind and eye． Before windows were used，the ancient halls and castles of northern Europe and Britain were dark and smoky．Their great rooms were high，with only a hole in the roof to let out the smoke from torches and cooking fires． As time went on，people wanted more light and air in their homes．They made the wind's eyes wider so as to admit air and light．They stretched canvas or tapestry across them to keep out the weather．

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How a Hunter Captures a Monkey

Few animals other than monkeys have hand like paws．The monkey，like man，has an opposable thumb——that is，it can place its thumb opposite its other fingers．By pressing its first finger against its thumb a monkey can pick up things as tiny as a flea．Because other animals lack this thumb，it is difficult for them to pick up small things and carry them． The monkey's ability to grasp rice with its paw often leads to its capture．Hunters bait a coconut with a handful of rice，leaving a hole in the shell of the nut．The monkey has no trouble sliding its paw through the hole．But it can't draw the paw out while it is holding a fistful of rice． Since it is often too stupid or greedy to open its hand，the monkey is unable to free itself from this simple trap．

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Where Did the New Life Come from

In 1883 a small volcanic island blew up．It was Krakatoa，west of Java in Sunda Strait．Nothing was left alive except one kind of earthworm．Yet in time plants began to grow again．By 1928 many kinds of animals lived on the island． Where did the new life come from？The nearest land was almost twelve miles away．Only a few of the new animals could fly or swim so far．The bugs，flies，and spiders were probably carried by the wind．The lizards and rats may have floated there on pieces of driftwood．Snails could have come on the wind or on floating coconuts or driftwood．Tornadoes and hurricanes may also have picked up creatures and dropped them miles away． These are some examples of“accidental migration”．Such trips have carried many plants and animals to new homes．

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The Moldy Hardtack and the Hunyry Soldiers

Hardtack，hardtack，come again no more！Union soldiers sang this song during the Givil War，and they had reason to complain．Hardtack was a plain flour－and－water biscuit．These biscuits were hard——it sometimes took a strong blow of the fist to break them．Soaking only made them rubbery． Many times the hardtack was not fit to eat．It often became wet or moldy when it was stored．Sometimes it was full of maggots and weevils．When a soldier got a moldy biscuit，he could ask for another．But if he got a wormy one，he had to eat it abtwat or go without． There were a few good things about hardtack．When it was eaten in the dark，no one knew whether it had bugs in it or not And there was always more for any soldier who was really bungry！

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Licorice Good for Both Man and Beast

Licorice can be used for other things besides candy．Some of the powers of the licorice plant have been known since ancient times．The Egyptians used it to cure sore throats，and an old Chinese story tells how licorice cured a dragon whose throat was sore from breathing fire．The armies of Alexander the Greatcartied licorice root as medicine on all of their campaigns． Modern medicine uses this old knowledge．Many of today's cough sirups contain licorice．It is good for both man and beast，and veterinarians give it to horses，cattle，sheep，dogs and cats． Licorice can put out fires，too．After the sweet juices have been taken out，the waste fiber of the root is used to make a fire——fighting foam．This foam smothers fire by keeping oxygen away from it．A licorice fire extinguisher is sold today．

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If George Washington Could Visit the United States Now

If George Washington were able to travel back and forth in time，he would feel much more at home in ancient Babylon，3700 years before his time，than in our modern age，200years after he lived． Torches，chairots，and rough streets，like those of Babylon in 2060 B．C．，would not surprise him．He read by candlelight and rode in carriages on unpaved roads．He never saw a building more than four stories high．Electric lights，autos，high－ways，and skyscrapers would amaze him． When Washington was ill，he might have expected to be cut and bled to let out the“bad blood”that was making him sick．He would not know what a modern doctor meant by serums，germs，and allergies． If the Father of His Gountry could visit the United States now，he might think that he had landed on another planet！

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A Tornado that Makes Red Rain

A tornado can do a lot of damage The wind of a tornado rushes at great speed around a funnel—shaped cloud．It travels in a path a few hundred feet wide and about twenty－five miles long．As the wind circles counterclockwise，the funnel spirals higher and higher．The force of the wind sucks up water，dirt，and objects，and carries them along with it．It may drop them again many miles away．Houses and huge trees have been drawn into tornado funnels．At sea，ships have been nearly sunk by tornadoes dropping water on them． East of Australia，people talk about a“rain of blood”．This is caused by a tornado picking up red dust and mixing it with water to make red rain．There are even stories abut a rain of fish and frogs caused by a tornado sucking them up and then dropping them．

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The Hognose Snake，One of Nature's Clowns

The hognose snake，sometimes called the puff adder，is one of nature's clowns．Some people think that he is deadly poisonous．Actually，he's just a harmless fellow who spends most of his time huntingtoads． The puff adder gets his name from being a terrific bluffer．He will swell up，hiss，and strike viciously to frighten you away．If that doesn't work，he will flatten out，making his head look like a cobra's． He has one more trick——playing dead．He goes limp，opens his mouth wide，and rolls over on his back so that he couldn't possibly look more dead． Unfortunately，this trick is spoiled by his one—track mind．If you pick him up he lies still．But turn him over and he will thrash about wildly，trying to turn himself belly up again．

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How the Falls of Iguassu Was Discovered

In 1542，Alvar Cabeza de Vaca and his small band of soldiers guided their boats down a jungle river．It was the Iguassu，which now marks the boundary between Brazil and Argentina．Never had the explorers seen a river so beautiful． At one point the men heard a strange rumble in the distance．It grew louder as they went on．Puzzled and afraid，they rounded a bend．Directly ahead of them the river vanished，plunging with a roar over the brink of a great chasm． The men fought the swift current and managed to reach shore just in time to keep from being swept over the brink．Then they crept out on the wet rocks and looked into the churning caldron below．They had discovered the greatest waterfall that had ever been seen by white men－the falls of Iguassu．

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A Temperature Change on the Moon

Astronomers can tell just how hot the surface of the moon gets．The side of the moon toward the sun gets two degrees hotter than boiling water．The night side reaches 243 degrees below zero． In an eclipse，the earth's shadow falls on the moon．Then the moon's temperature may drop 300 degrees in a very short time． A temperature change like this cannot happen on the earth．Why does it happen on the moon？Astronomers think that the surface of the moon is dust．On the earth，rocks store heat from the sun．When the sun goes down，the rocks stay warm．But the dust of the moon cannot store heat．So when the moon gets dark k，the heat escapes quickly．The moon gets very cold．

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Sen Otters off the Coast of California

sea otters off the coast of Californiahave an unusual method of getting food．They dive to the floor of the sea to find the shell－fish they like． When an otter brings a shellfish to the surface of the water，he floats on his back and puts the shellfish on his chest．Then the otter digs the meat out of the shell with his teeth． Sea otters are especially fond of shellfish with a very hard shell．When the otter brings up one of these，he also brings a stone．He puts the stone on his chest，holding the shellfish in his front paws．He takes a wide swing and smashes the hard shell on the stone．Then he has no trouble getting at the meat in the shell．

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The Small Black Ants，Nature's Clean—up Crew

The small black ants that we see running back and forth in the grass are the same ants that annoy us by coming to our picnics uninvited．They are not trying to make pests of them－selves，but are only doing the housekeeping job they were made for．They are nature's clean－upcrew． One of these ants，scouting in the grass，finds the trail of an injured beetle．In some mysterious way the news spreads．Soon there are two ants，then a few more．Then a dozen or more are running around the beetle．Enough ants will come to put an end to it． When the beetle is dead，the ants carry it away to their underground burrows．The efficient ants leave nothing in the grass but the empty shell．

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The Antarctic，a Desert of Ice All Year Round

The antarctic is actually a desert．It is the only continent on the earth without a river or a lake． The antarctic is all ice all year round．The warmest temperature ever recorded there is zero，at the South Pole．Explorers used to think that a place so cold would have a heavy snow－fall．But less than ten inches of snow falls each year．That is less than half an inch of water．Ten times that much moisture falls in parts of the Sahara． The little snow that falls in Antarctica never melts．It continues to pile up deeper and deeper year after year and century after century．When the snow gets to be about eighty feet deep it is turned to ice by the weight of the snow above it．

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A Giraffe that Did Not Believe in Himself

In Africa I heard a story about a giraffe that did not believe in himself． The giraffe's mother bad left him when he was a few days old because she couldn't feed him． For three years he lived in the warden's house and played with the children．Then he grew too large for the house． The family decided that he should return to his fellows．They took him to join a herd of wild giraffes． One look was enough for the giraffe's small brain．He could not believe that such extraordinary animals existed．Or that he was one of them！He turned and bolted． The family took him back several times．In the end they gave up．Now their giraffe lives by himself near the warden's house．

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How the Hawaiian Is lands Were Built

Volcanoes have been erupting on the earth for millions of years．More than five hundred still erupt today．These are called active volcanoes．Volcanoes are located in belts or chains．They are found where the earth's crust is weak．The weak spots let the hot rock escape when the volcano erupts． Many volcano belts are mountain ranges along the edges of continents．One belt runs along the western coast of South America up through the western part of the United States．Other volcanoes are found in ocean basins． About three－fifths of all active volcanoes in the world are in the Pacific Ocean．Many of these volcanoes erupt under the water．The Hawaiian Islands were built by volcanoes that began erupting under water and finally reached the surface of the ocean．

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Who First Made Ice Cream

Most Americans think that ice cream is as American as baseball and apple pie．But ice cream was known long before America was discovered． The Roman emperor Nero may have made a kind of ice cream．He hired hundreds of men to bring snow and ice from the mountains．He used it to make cold drinks．Traveler Marco Polobrought back recipes for chilled and frozen milk from China． Hundreds of years later，ice cream reached England．It is said that King Charles Ienjoyed that treatvery much．There is a story that he bribed his cook to keep the recipe for ice cream a royal secret． Today ice cream is known throughout the world．Americans alone eat more than two billion quartsa year．

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The Necktie through Thick and Thin

From hat to shoes，men's clothes are useful．Only one piece of clothing is worn just for decoration．It is the necktie，or cravat．The necktie is left over from the time when men wore ruffles，ribbons，and tassels． Beau Brummel was an Englishman of the early 1800's．He was famous for his fancy clothes．The story is told that he used to invite guests just to watch him knot his white cravat． Now，perhaps，even the necktie is going out of style．It has been getting smaller and smaller for hundreds of years．It started out as a piece of lace and turned into a silk bow．Then it became a triangle that was tied around the neck．Now many neckties are no wider than a piece of string．

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The Three Ways of Man to Preserve Meat

Finding enough meat was a problem for primitive man．Keeping it for times when it was scarce was just as hard．Three ways were found to keep meat from spoiling：salting，drying，and freezing． People near salty waters salted their meat．At first they probably rubbed dry salt on it，but this preserved only the outside．Later they may have pickled their meat by soaking it in salt water． In hot，dry lands，men found that they could eat meat that had dried while it was still on the bones．They later learned to cut meat into thin strips and hang it up to dry in the hot air． Men in cold climates found that frozen meat did not spoil．They could leave their meat outside and eat it when they pleased．

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Earthworms that Help Improve the Soil

The earthworm is a useful animal．Out of the ground，it is food for other animals．In the ground，it makes rich soil for fields and gardens． Earthworms dig tunnels that loosen the soil and make it easy for air and water to reach the roots of plants．These tunnels help keep the soil well drained． Earthworms drag dead leaves，grass，and flowers into their burrows．When this plant material decays，it makes the soil more fertile． No other animal is so useful in building up good topsoil．It is estimated that in one year fifty thousand earthworms carry about eighteen tons of fine soil to the surface of an acre of land．One worm may add three quarters of a pound of earth to tho topsoil．

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Diamonds in the United States

Most of the world's diamonds come from Africa，but there is one place in the United States where they are found．It is near Murfreesboro，Arkansas． Diamonds were first found near Murfreesboro in 1906．About fifty thousand diamonds have come from this field．One forty－caratdiamond was the largest ever found in North America．But most of the stones were too small to make mining worthwhile．Soon all mining stopped there．Today a visitor to Murfreesboro can hurt for diamonds himself． A few diamonds have been found in sand and gravel along the Great Lakes，too．But none of these were in their original blue ground．They may have been formed far to the north and carried south by the last great glaciers．

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